water movement in plants 1

Ydl ;=, c,h yd LKsc ,jK mrsjykh  ls%hdj,s jsu¾Ykh lrhs'

1   c,h  ;=, p,kh jk   wKq we; tys wvx.= Yla;sh ljr kulska ye|skafjhs o@

2 c,h r;a lr wKqj, fjs.hg l=ula isoq fjhs o@ tys m%;sM,h l=ula o@

3  mssrsisoq c, Ndckhl ^wdi%e; c,h & c, wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh Wmrsu fjhs tfy;a ,qKq o%jKh   r;al< jsg tys ;dmdxlh jevsfjhs  $ c, wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh wvq fjhs 'ta l=ula ksido@

iuia; c, wKq j, pd,l Yla;sh fhdod .ksuska ld¾hhla isoql< yelsh c,jsNj;dj f,i y|qkajkafka  th ueksh yels Odrs;djls

4 c,jsNj;dj jevs w.hla .kafka ljr o%djKhl o@

5 c, wKq  idkao%kh jevss ia:dkhl yd  c, wKq  idkao%kh wvq ia:dkh kus lrkak

    c, wKq  idkao%kh jevss ia:dkhl   -----

6 i;aj ffi,hla wdi%e; c,hg fhoQ jsg c, wKq  idkao%kh jevss ia:dkh yd  c, wKq  idkao%kh wvq ia:dkh kus lrkak

  c, wKq  idkao%kh jevss ia:dkh  -----    

  c, wKq  idkao%kh wvq  ia:dkh -----   

7 i;aj ffi,hla c,hg fhoQ jsg c, .uk isoqjkafka ljr osYdjg o@ wjidkfha l=ula  isoqfjhs o@

8 wdka;r mdr.uH mg,hla yryd isoqjk c,h .uka lsrsu y|qkajk ku ,shkak

9 wdka;r mdr.uH mg,hla  fjkqjg ffi, ns;a;shla mej;=ks kus th yryd isoqjk c,h .uka lsrsu y|qkajk ku ,shkak

10 c, jsNjh jevs ia:dkhl isg c, jsNjh wvq ia:dkhla olajd c,h .uka lsrSu iEu jsgu isoqfjhs kus pd,l Yla;sh fjkia l< yels$ c, jsNj;dj fjkia l< yels  yels l%u my; ksrslaIk w;frka f;darkak  WIaK;ajh fjkia lsrSu u.ska  $ mSvkh u.ska $ idkao%Kh fjkia lsrSu $c,ldus o%jH mej;Su

 1  r;a lrk jsg c,h jdIamslrKh jevsjSu

11  tkak;a lsrsfuaoS isrskac Ndjs; lrhs

111  jsh

1 v  jsh

 iSks o%djKh                        0.2M        0.1M       wdi%e; c,h                          

 c, jsNjh  lsf,da meial,a        -540         -260            0

11 Wmrsu c,  jsNj w.h ψ / psi we;af;a  l=ul o@tys w.h lSh o@

12 o%djH m%udKh jevsjk jsg l=ula isoqfjhso@

13 0.2M    o%djKfha idkao%Kh  fya;= fldg f.k c,jsNjh fldmuK m%udKhlska wvqjs ;sfns o@

14 o%djKhl idkao%Kh  fya;= fldg f.k c,jsNj fjkiajk m%udKh  o%djH jsNjh kus fjhs  0.1M    o%djKfha tu w.h lsho@

15 isrskachlg wdi%e; c,h fhdod msiagkh ;o l< jsg c, jsNjhg l=ula isoq fjhs o@

16 c,lduS o%jH f,i .efkkafka ta.d¾ fm%dagsk jeks o%jHhkah ksmdkh f,i ye|skafjkafka tjeks ixfhda. u.ska isoqlrk c,h wOsfYdaIkh jSu ksid c, jsNjhg l=ula fjhs o@

17 .=re;ajh fyda msvkh ksid c,h p,kh jsu ialkaO m%jdyh kus fjhs tjeks wjia:djlg WodyrK ,shkak wxl 10 wjia:do Ndjs;  l< yelsh

meiosis

kshus; jsIhh tall fldgi lshjSfuka wk;=rej wod, m%Yak j,g ms

iuyr jsIhh tall fldgia  msanimescience.webatu.com fj;ska ,nd  .ekSug W;aidy lrkak 

Tnf.a msbiologyans.blogspot.com  fj; msjsfikak'                                                                                

fuh Tng iajhx we.hsula jkafkah' ms

ksrka;rfhka isoq lrk iajhx we.hSu jsNd. j,g id¾:l f,i uqyqK oSug w;aje,la jkq we;'

Wqkk jsNdckh

1 m%ckkfhaoS isoqjkafka l=ula o@

2 hus cSjshl=f.a wdrusNh ;ks ffi,hlsks hkak ikd: lsrSu i|yd idlaIs fokak

3 cSjSkaf.a m%fjsKsl ,laIK .nvd lrk m%fjsKsl o%jH fudkjd o@

4 iqkHIagsl cSjshl=f.a m%fjsKsl o%jH mj;sk ia:dk fudkjd o@

5 ,laIK .nvd lsrsu yereKq jsg DNA u.ska bgq lrk ld¾hhka ,shkak

6 ffi, jsNdckfhaos kHIagsfha odhl;ajh l=ula o@

7 fm%dagSk ixiaf,aIKfha oS kHIagsfha odhl;ajh l=ula o@

8 m%ckkfhaoS wdfjsKsfha rgd md,kh kHIagsh u.ska isoq lrhs wdfjsKsh isoq lrkafka ljrlska o@

9 ta i|yd wjYH msgm; iEoSu isoqjkafka l=uk wjia:dfjsoSo@

10    jraKfoayhla hkq os.  DNA  wKqjls tys cdkfha m:h f,i y|qkajkafka l=ula  o@

11 ksYaps; wkqms

12 tu cdk hq.,fhka  tlla ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@

13  ;ks ffi,hlska csjshl=f.a wdrusN fjhs th ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@ tys isoqjk jsNdckh l=ula o@

14 wkqkk jsNdckh fidhd .;af;a ljq o@

15  hqla;dKqj  iEfokafka flfia o@

16  usksia hqla;dKfqjs iucd;Sh jraKfoay hq., lShla mj;shs o@ tlsfklg fjkia  lgsg,$ f.dafkdau lShla fuysos iEosh yels o@

17 nyq.=K cSjskaf.a jsfYaI;ajh l=ula o@

18  f.dafkdau 1 la iys; ffi, y|qkajk ku ,shkak

19  tjeks ffi, i|yd WodyrK fokak

20 ,sx.sl m%ckkfha oS ckaudKq ixfiapkfhka iEfok hqla;dKqfjs   j¾Kfoay .Kk  ^46&ksh;j ;nd .eksug kus ckaudKqjla  ;=,  j¾Kfoay lshla mej;sh hq;=o@

21  tfia kus j¾Kfoay .Kk wvla jsug kus ckaudKq idok ffi,hl ljr jsNdckhla isoqjsh hq;=o@

22 Wqkk jsNdckh fidhd .;af;a ljq o@

23  usksia hqla;dKfqjs  we;s iucd;Sh jraKfoay hq.,fhka tlla ,efnkafka ljrlska o@

24  ljr mgl ;=, fuu ls%hdj,sh isoqfjhs o@

25  Wkk jsNdckfha m%;sM,h l=ula o@

26 tysos kHIags jsNdckh ls jdrhla isoqfjhs o@

27 j¾Kfoay ixLHj yrs wvla jkafka ljr jsNdckfhaoSo@

28  kj ffi, ks¾udKhg wjYH o%jH ljr wjia:djl os iEfohs o@

29  ffi, pl%h hkq l=ula o@ fuu ld,h ;=, isoqjkafka l=ula o@

30  Wqkk jsNdckh wjOs lShla mj;shso@ ta fudkjd o@

32 Wkkh 1 jsydckh wjidkfha ffi, lShla iEfohs o@

33 oS¾> ld,hla ;=,  isoq jkafka l=uk wjOsh o@

34  wkQkkh g iudk f,i yeisfrkafka  ljr wjia:dj o@

Wkkh 1 jsydckh m%dla l,dj ;=, tlsfklg fjkia wjia:d rdYshla yuqjk w;r oS we;s tu wjia:d wkqms

tla tla wjia:djg iqoqiq kula fokak

iucd;sh j¾Kfoay tlsfklg iuSmjSu yd iudka;rj msysgsu  -

j¾Kfoay flgsjSu yd >kjSu ---

kQ,a jeks j¾Kfoay fmfkkakg mgka .ekSu ---

 kHIagsldj fkdfmkS hdu  -- 

flakao%foay  folg fnosu tla O%ejhlg tla flakao%foayhla .uka lsrSu  ---

fl%dugska lKsld iys; jsYd, f.da,dldr  kHIagsh---

kHIags mg,h oshjSu;a  iu. j¾Kfoay ffi, maa,diauhg tl;= jSu  --

ffi,fha iul ;,h fomi iucd;  j¾Kfoay  hq., ieliSu  -- 

uxi, iEoqKq ia:dk j¾KfoaydxY fldgi fjkajSu yd fjkajQ 

j¾KfoaydxY fldgi yqjudre jS iusnkaO jSu --

fikag%ushrh olajd j¾Kfoay me,su ---

tla j¾KfoaydxY hla iucd; wfkla j¾Kfoayfha  j¾KfoaydxYhla iu. yria jegsu ---

 ;¾l=j yels,Su yd j¾KfoaydxY njg m;ajQ  j¾Kfoay  ffi,fha O%ej lrd .uka lsrsu   ---- 

oqys;D ffi, hq.,hla ms

uxi, j¾Kfoaydka; foig .uka  lsrsu ---

j¾KfoaydxY njg m;ajQ  j¾Kfoay  ffi,fha iul ;,h lrd .uka lsrsu   ---- 

tla ;¾l= ;ka;=jlg iucd;  hq.,h fikag%ushrh fomi we;s lhskgfldar u.ska ijsjSu -- 

ffi,fha tla tla O%ejfha j¾KfoaydxY njg m;ajQ  j¾Kfoay f.dkqjla ne.ska ms

35 jsydckh wjOs 4 ,shkak

36 oS we;s ,laIKhg .e,fmk ffi,h rEm igyfkka f;darkak

fl%dugska lKsld iys; jsYd, f.da,dldr  kHIagsh ---

kQ,a jeks j¾K foaydxY njg m;ajQ j¾K foay iys; kHIags mej;su  ---

jraKfoay iys; kHIags 4 la mej;Su ---

 kHIags mg,h oshjSu;a  iu. j¾K foaydxY njg m;ajQ j¾Kfoay ffi, maa,diauhg tl;= jSu  --

ffi,fha iul ;,h Tiafia j¾Kfoay  ieliSu  --

j¾Kfoay  ffi,fha O%ej lrd .uka lsrsu   ----

oqys;D ffi, hq.,hla ms

ffi,fha iul ;,h Tiafia  tla ;¾l= ;ka;=jlg tl ne.ska j¾Kfoay  ieliSu 

fikag% ushrh me,su  tla j¾KfoaydxYhla tla O%ejhlg;a wfkla  j¾KfoaydxYh m%;sjsreoaO O%ejhg;a  .uka lsrsu ---

ffi,fha tla tla O%ejfha j¾Kfoay f.dkqjla ne.ska ms

ffi,fha tla tla O%ejfha ud;D  ixLHfjka wvla jk kHIagshla yd kHIagsldjla  ks¾udKh jsu  ---

 .=Kd;aulj tlsfklg fjkia tal .=K ffi, 4la ms

;¾l=j fkdfmkS hdu  ---

37  ffi, ma,diau jsNdckfha oS fNaaok we,shla iEfoka fka ljr  ffi,hl o@

38 wfkla ffi,j, ta fjkqjg isoqjkafka l=ula o@

39 iEfok ffi, i¾j iu fkdjkafka ljr ,laIK u.ska o@

40 Wkkh wkqkk fhka fjkia jk wjia:d  f;dard ,shkak

Mitosis

wkqkk jsNdckh

1 kHIagshl wka;¾.; fldgia fudkjdo@

2 tys m%fjsKsl o%jH ljrla  ;=, wka;¾.; fjhs o@

3 kHIagsh ;=,g o%jH mrsjykh lrkq ,nkafka l=ula yryd o@

4  ffi, j¾Okh  yd ffi, jsNdckfha iS>%;dj md,kh  lsrsu kHIagshl tla ld¾hhla jk w;r ixiaf,aIKh i|yd th odhl jk wjia:djka i|yka lrkak

5 ffi, jsNdckfha m%;sM,h l=ula o@

6 kj ffi, ks¾udKhg wjYH o%jH ljr wjia:djl os iEfohs o@

7 ffi, pl%h hkq l=ula o@ fuu ld,h ;=, isoqjkafka l=ula o@

8 wjOs lShla mj;shso@ ta fudkjd o@

9 my; isoqjSus j,g .e,fmk wjOsh f;darkak

kj fm%dagSk yd ffi, fldgia ksmojSu   ---

DNA wKq ixiaf,aIKh  ----  

ffi, ma,diau  jsNdckh yd ffi, ;,h we;sjSu---

kj fm%dagSk yd ixiaf,aIKh uhsgfldkavs%hd yd wfkl=;a bkaos%ld m%;sj,s; jsu ----

10 wkQkkh f,i y|qkajkafka ljr wjia:dj o@

11 tysoS isoqjkafka l=ula o@

12 jsNdckh wdrusN lrk ffi,hla Tn y|qkd.kafka flfia o@

13 i;aj ffi,hla msNdckh wdrusN lrk nj flfia y|qkd.; yelafla flfia o@

14 wkQkkfha  wjOs 4 ,shkak

15 oS we;s ,laIKhg .e,fmk ffi,h rEm igyfkka f;darkak

fl%dugska lKsld iys; jsYd, f.da,dldr  kHIagsh ---

kQ,a jeks jraKfoay iys; kHIagsh la mej;Su ---

 kHIags mg,h oshjSu;a  iu. j¾Kfoay ffi, maa,diauhg tl;= jSu  --

ffi,fha iul ;,h Tiafia j¾Kfoay  ieliSu  --

 j¾Kfoay  ffi,fha O%ej lrd .uka lsrsu   ----

oqys;D ffi, hq.,hla ms

16 wkQkk jsNdckfha tu wjOs j,g wkqms

my;ska i|yka jkafka wkqkk jsNdckfha jsjsO wjia:djka  lsysmhls

1  j¾K foay fikag%ushrh olajd folg me,Su  ---

2   j¾K foay flgsjSu yd >k jSu ---

3 flakaos%ldj folg fnoSu   ----

4 fikag%ushrh folg fnosu ---

5 j¾K foay fkdfmkS hdu---

6 kHIags mg,h yd kHIagsldj fkdfmkShdu $w;=reoyka jsu ---

7 fikag%ushrh fomi we;s lhskgflda¾ j,g ;¾l= ;ka;= ne|Su  ---

8 flakao% foay u.ska ;¾l=j ks¾udKh lsrsu ---

9 j¾K foay ffi, iulfha fm< .eiSu  ---

10 j¾K foaydxY fjkajS j¾K foay njg m;ajS m%;sjsreoaO O%ej lrd weoS hdu  ---

11 kHIagshla yd kHIagsldjla  ks¾udKh jsu  ---

12 ;¾l=j fkdfmkS hdu  ---

13 j¾K foay iul ;,h fj; .uka lsrsu ----

14 tla ;¾l= ;ka;=jlg tla  j¾K foay ne.ska ijsjSu ----

17 ffi, ma,diau jsNdckfha oS fNaaok we,shla iEfoka fka ljr  ffi,hl o@

18 wfkla ffi,j, ta fjkqjg isoqjkafka l=ula o@

19 iEfok ffi, i¾j iu jkafka ljr ,laIK u.ska o@

20 fujeks jsNdck isoqjk wjia:d fudkjd o@

Hormones

i;aj fydafudak

1 i;aj fydadfudak l=uk ixfhda. j,ska ksmofjhs o@

2 tajd ksoyia lrk .%ka:s y|qkajk ku l=ula o@

3 ks¾kd, .%ka:s f,i tajd ye|skajsug fya;=j ,shkak

4 tu lD;Huh fjkig wod, .%ka:sj, mj;sk  jHqyuh fjkila  fokak

5 foayh mqrd jsisrS we;s wka;rdi¾. .%ka:s j, ls%hdldrs;ajh r|d mj;skafka ljr .%ka:shl ls%hdldrs;ajh u; o@

6 fjk;a .%ka:shla W;af;ackh i|yd ksmojk tjeks fydafudak lsysmhla ,shkak'

7 msgshqgrshg iajdOSk f,i fydafudak ksmojsu l< fkdyelshta ukao@

8 msgshqgrsfha  reOsr jdyskS nyq, LKavsldj l=ula o@

9 iakdhq nyq, LKavsldj ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@

10 tu iakdhq iusnkaO;dj mj;ska fka ljrla iu. o@ tys odhl;ajh  l=ulao@

11 tfia msgshqgrsh ;=, .nvd lrk fydafudakhla ,shkak

Genetic finger print

  

1 DNAwKqfjs cdkh $we,s,h hkafkka woyia jkafka ljrla o@ thg Ndjs; k< yels fjk;a kula ,shkak 

2fujeks cdkhla lmd fjkalr .eksug Ndjs; lrk tkaihsuhla ,shkak

3 tu tkaihsuh ksYaps; NIau wkqms   DNA fldgi lmd fjka lrhs

fjka lr .;a cdkhla  j¾K foayhlg noaO lsrSug fhdod .kakd tkaihsuh l=ula o@

4 fujeks mrslaIK i|yd nyq,j fhdod .kakd cSjSka ljqreka o@

5 Tjqkaf.a odhl;ajh l=ula o@

 u

6 Tjqka i;= ljr lD;Huh  ,laIK fus i|hd fya;= fjhs o@

7 nelagsrshd  DNA fjkalr .ekSu myiq jS we;af;a l=ula ksid o@

8 ;ks mg  DNA iEoSu ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@ thsoS isoqjkafka l=ula o@

9 tjeks mg fjkalr .ekSfus oS w,jd lnd .eksug l=ula Ndjs; lrhs o@

10 Escherichia coli  nelagsshdj  cdk;dlaIKfha oS nyq,j Ndjs; fjhs Tjqka cSSj;ajk mrsirh l=ula o@

11 tys mj;sk ma,diausv j, jeo.;a lu ,shkak

12 tys mj;sk cdk ;dlaIKfha oS m%fhdackj;a jk ,laIKhla ,shkak

13 nelagSrshd NlaIlhla hkq l=ula o@ WodyrK fokak

1 4 noaO l< cdkhla wvx.= j¾K foayhla y|qkajk ku ,shkak

15 th nelagSrshd ffi,hlg we;=¿   lsrsug  Ndjs; lrkafka  l=ulaa o@

16 nelagSrshd ma,diausv Ndjs;fhka  m%;s ixfhdack DNA  ffi,hlg tla lsrsu ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@

17 jhsri f.dafkdau Ndjs;fhka  m%;s ixfhdack DNA  ffi,hlg tla lsrsu ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@

18 Odrl ffi,h ;=, oS m%:ufhka isoqjkafka l=ula o@

19 oqys;D jhsri j, fm%dagsk wdjrKh i|yd wjYH fm%dagSk idok ia:dkh ,shkak

20 nelagsrshd ffi,h ns|Su isoq jkafka ljr wjia:djl oSo

21 fuysoS tl iudk msgm;a rdYshla ksmojhs tu ls5hdj,sh y|qkajk ku ,shkak

22 laf,dak jdylh f,i i,lkafka l=ula o@

23 nelagSrshd ma,diausv fhdod .ksuska tu Odrl ffi,h fm%dAgsk ksmojhs cdk ;dlaIKfha oS tfia idok jsjsO fm%dagsk j, kus ,shkak

24 Odrl ffi, f,i Ydl ffi, fhdod .ksuska ,nd .;a fNda. Ydl kus lrkak tu Ydl j, mj;sk jsfYaI;d fudkjd o@

25  hus ffi,hlska ,nd .;a  DNA  wKqjlg  iudk jslsrKYS,S  fmdiafmag wvx.= DNA oduhla idod .ekSfus m  o@

26 ta i|yd wjYH wuq o%jH  yd tkaihsu fudkjd o@

27 iEoqKq oqys;D DNA wKqjla ;=,  jslsrKYS,;dj we;s mg lshla ,efnhs o@

28 tu  jslsrKYS,;dj we;s mgh fjkalr .eksug .;hq;= ls%hd ud¾.h ,shkak

29 tla cSjshl=g jsYsIaG jk tf,i i,l=Kq l< DNA wKqjla  y|qkajk ku l=ula o@

30 fkdokakd DNA  idusm,hl tu NIau wkqms

taIK fhdod .kS fkdokakd idusm,fha fuhg iud k mej;=Ks kus taIK iu. usY% l< jsg l=ula isoq fjhs o@

Eco system

iajdNdjsl mrsir moaO;s

1 ,xldfjs mj;sk iajdNdjsl mrsir moaO;s j¾. kus lrkak

hus mrsirhl mj;sk Ydl m%cdfjs iajNdjh  idOl 3 la u; r|d mj;shs fN!u idOlh ffcj idOlh   foaY.=Ksl idOlh

2 ffcj idOlh   mrsir moaO;sfha isgsk hefmkkaf.a iajNdjh u; lDK N+us we;sjsh yelsh ljr fmdaIK l%uhla ta i|yd fya;= fjhs o@

3 mdxY= c,fha iajNdjh u; tlsfklg fjkia mrsir moaO;s we;sjk wjia:d i|yd WodyrK fokak

usrsosh fmdl=Kq mrsir moaO;sh   ---

lfvd,dk mrsir moaO;sh  ---  

fjr

 

4 l=vd m%foaYhla ;=, fjkia jkafka ljr idOlhla o@

5 l=vd m%foaYhla ;=, fjkia fkdjkafka ljr idOlhla o@

6 ,xldfjs mj;sk iajdNdjsl mrsir moaO;s we;sjsu i|yd fya;=js we;af;a;jr idOlh o@

7 ljr foaY.=Ksl ,laIK ai |yd fya;= js ;sfns o@

8 tu foaY.=Ksl l,dm y|qkajkak

9 ,xldjg  j¾Idm;kh ,efnk l%u fudkjd o@

10 fudaius j¾Idj ,efnkafka ljr m%foaY j,go@ l=uk ld, j,oS o@

11 tla tla l,dm j,g ,efnk Wmrsu j¾Idm;kh  lSh o@

12 udOHkH WIaK;ajfha jsp,khla mj;ska fka l=uk l,dmfha o@ th fldmuK fjhs o@

13 wfkla l,dm j,g jvd tjeks  mej;sug fya;=j l=ula o@

14 tla tla l,dmfha mj;sk iajNdjsl jDlaI,;dosh y|qkajkak

my; rg f;;a l,dmh   --

l|qlr f;;a l,dmh  ---  

w;rueos l,dmh  --- 

Y=Ial l,dmh   

my; rg jsh    

Evolution

mrskduh

 1 mD:sjsfha wdrusNl jdhqf.da,h  $Wm; l=uk ld,hl isoqjS o@

2 tu ld,h ;=, isoq jQ fjkialus ,shkak

3 mD:sjsfha wdrusNl jdhqf.da,h  tkus Tlaiscka fyda Tsfidaka fkdue;s$ Tlaisydrl jdhqf.da,h iEoS ;snqfka flfia o@

   4 j¾Idj we;sjSug ;=vq oqka fjkia jSu ,shkak

   5  j¾Idj iu. we;s jQ c,dY j, iqjsfYaI;ajh l=ula  o@

    6 wdos iQmfha wka;¾.;h l=ula o@ fuu u;h bosrsm;a lf

7 fus i|yd wjYH Yla;sh ,nd .;af;a l=ulska o@

8 fujekakla  isoqjsh yels nj m%dfhda.slj bosrsm;a lf  th isol< wkaou ,shkak

                       

   9 fujeks wKq l,s,uh wKq j,ska jg jSfuka ks¾udKh jQfha ljrla o@

10 fudjqka fmdaIKh ,enqfjs ljrlska o@

11 tu fmdaIK l%uh ljr kulska y|qkajhs o@

12 fmdaI o%jH wjika jSfu ka miq ljr fmdaIK l%uhla  fmkajk cSjSka werusN jQfha o@

13 Tjqkaf.a mrsjD;a;sfha oS isoqjQ jeo.;a isoqjSula ,shkak Tjqka nsysjQfha ljodo@   

    14 th lD;Huh jYfhka iudk jkafka l=ulg o@

    

   15 ljr fmdaIK l%uhla fus ksid nsysjQfha o@

16 Tlaiscka ksmojk  m%Ndixiaf,aISka nsysjQfha ljodo@   

17 mD:sjs b;sydifha  m%Odk hq. 4 ,shkak

Archeozoic    m%dlaflausn%Sh ns,shk 2'7-0'7

Palaeozoic -  fm,sfhdfidhsla ns,shk 1'0-1'5

Mesozoic   -   uSfifidhsla

Cenozoic   -   iSfkdfidhsla

l  Paleozoic          Cambrian     us,shk   570

                            Ordovician   us,shk   510 

                            Silurian        us,shk   440

                            Devonian     us,shk   408

                            Carboniferous us,shk  us,shk   362

                             Permian        us,shk   290

                             Triassic       us,shk   245

 Mesozoic             Jurasic         us,shk   208

                            Cretaceous    us,shk   145

 Coenozoic           Tertiary      us,shk   - 65

my; oela fjk isoqjSus j,g wod, hq. fudkjd o@

18 Tlaiscka ksmojk  m%Ndixiaf,aISka  we;sjSu   ---- 

nelagSrshd yd fm%dgsiagdjka muKla cSj;a jSu  ----  

    wmDIaGjxYSka nyq,h              

   nelagSrshd yd fm%dgsiagdjka os,Sr mej;Su  

19 fN!usl Ydl we;sjSu   fud,qiald me;srSu   ---

   u;aiH mrsKduh   ----

s20  fmky,q u;aiHhka yd lDuSka  we;sjSu  ----                                 

                              

  21  WNhcSjSka iusNjh jsu    

        n%fhdmsgd uSjk Ydl    ---

  22  uSjk jkdka;r we;sjSu

     m%:u Wr.hka we;sjSu ----

  23  flaa;+Or Ydl we;sjSu   ----

     wefudksgd yd g%hsf,dndgd j|jSu    ---

  24  jsjD; nScl nyq,jSu   

   laISrmdhSka we;sjSu

25 imqIam Ydl we;sjsu

   fla;+Or Ydl me;srsu  ----

Wr.hkaf.a me;srSu ---

26 Wr.hkaf.a j|jSu ----

mlaISka we;sjSu ----

                 

27  laISrmdhSkaf.a mrskduh  ----

 28 wdjD; nScl Ydl me;srSu ---

 29 ksj¾;k jkdka;r we;sjSu ---

30 usksidg iudk jdkrhsla we;sjSu ---

31   laISrmdhSkaf.a nyq,jSu  ---

TskEu fjs,djloS wcSj o%jH j,ska iajhxisoaOj cSjh we;sjk nj

Wod ' l+Kqj,ska mkqjka we;sjSu

       fros len,s j,ska uShka we;sjSu

32 mrskduh  ms y|qkajk ku l=ula o@   

   ish,q cSjSka iqjsfYaIS n,OdrS fojshka jykafia flfkl+ ujk ,o nj mjikafka l=uk u;hl o@

34 wNHjldYfhka cSjSka Wod 'W,ald fyda wkH .%yf,dalhkska meusKs wNHjldY  hdkd

$ nScdKq meusKs nj;a thska cSjSka we;sjQ nj;a mejfikafka  ljr u;hl o@